Discuss the causes and effects of desertification in the sahel (Africa) Essay Example

Discuss the causes and effects of desertification in the sahel (Africa) Paper * What are the possible solutions to desertification and in your opinion which solutions would be most effective and whyDesertification is the spreads of desert conditions into areas were not previously deserted. This process most commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid environments, the Sahel region in Africa is one of the worst affected.Estimates suggest that 35% of the earths land surface is at risk, and the livelihoods of 850 million people are directly affected. 75% of the worlds drier lands 45,000,000 square kilometers are affected by desertification, and every year 6,000,000 hectares of agricultural land are lost and become desert. The Sahara is thought to be advancing southwards by about 5-10 kilometers per year, which is a very considerable amount, when you remember that the Sahara is 5,150 kilometers across at its widest point http://www.yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/env_facts/desertification.htmlThe regions it affects are Africa, the Middle East, India and Pakistan, China, Australia, the USA, Brazil, Peru and Chile in Latin America, and in European countries such as Greece, Spain and Portugal. http://www.the-human-race.com/pages/about_desertification.htmThe Sahel region is a semiarid region of north-central Africa south of the Sahara Desert. Since the 1960s, the Sahel (the semi-arid land below the Sahara that stretches from Senegal to Eritrea) has experienced a devastating drought and its population has exploded, compounding the demand for firewood, the main source of cooking fuel. The deforestation, in return has destroyed the land and made desertification worse. http://www.remibenali.com/issues-sahel/index.phpThe United Nations Environment Program said that over 19 million square miles of the worlds land surface are becoming desert. In North Africa the Sahel region is the worst. The effect of desertification in the sahel are very bad because it makes the farmers produce less yield of food to the people in the community, the people and animals dies o ff because of the lack of food. It also makes the food expensive for the community because there is less food and more people.The causes of desertification in Sahel are by both human and natural activities.The human causes are over cultivation, poor irrigation practices, deforestation, climate change and overgrazing. The natural cause is the annual rain far below average, and high temperatures.Over cultivation is when farmers exhaust the soil by farming too much on it every year which makes the soil becomes useless to the farmers. When the sun heats it, it becomes dry and is blow away by the wind and later turns to desert.Poor irrigation practices is when the farmer in the Sahel water their plants poorly, they only water their plants when it rains. When the plant dose not gets water it dies off and when the soil does not gets water it dry out which makes the land turn dust.Deforestation is when the farmer in the Sahel cut down trees and plant to build houses, making fires and food. When the trees and plants have been cut down it then makes the soil open to the sun which will make the soil turn into dusts. When the rain falls there wouldnt be trees to protect the soil from being washed away.Climate change is making the world hotter and causing less rain to fall. Climate change is mostly caused by power station cars and industry. They release carbon emissions that trap the heat that makes the earth hotter. So place like Sahel are becoming hotter than before and because the climate in Sahel is becoming hotter this cause it to rain less and longer droughts.Overgrazing is when the animals in the Sahel feed on a particular place for a long time eating every thing, even the roots and because the land is unperfected from the sun, it then turn the land into drought.The natural causes are annual rain and high temperatures. Annual rain in Sahel is far below average. So when there is less rainfall on the land, it then turns the land into desert when it is heated by the su n. High temperature is when it is very hot in the Sahel and due to the high amount of evaporation there will be less rain fall which will then makes the land dry out and turn into desert.To solve the problems caused by desertification in the Sahel the following have to be done. Using irrigation water being control, water plant correctly at certain hours also look after water, the advantages of using this method is that it save water, can be done easily and crops grows better. The disadvantage is that it cost money to set up. Education programs teach the woman and men how to look after their farms and can be more productive, the advantage of using this method is that it the same as long term aid. Training programs teach farmers how to look after their lands do not overgraze or over cultivate, the advantages of using this method are that it might work, they will make money from the crops and more food to the community.The disadvantages are that it cost money for training and might not work. Seed technology, mixing certain type of seed that can survive during drought, the advantage of using this method is that it works in dry places. The disadvantage is that it expensive. Afforestation, planting of more trees, no more cutting down of any more trees, the advantages of using this method is that plant transpiration rainfall, it good for the soil and dose not turn the soil to desert.The disadvantages are that it takes long time for trees to grow and they might die off due to the little rainfall. Long term aid this, this types of aid allows people to develop their live hood so they can survive without aid in future. The advantage of using this method is that it teaches them how to look after their lands and make it more productive for the future.My opinion on which solution is the best and why I think that the best solution for every one is Afforestation because is suitable for everyone, the easiest to use and its cheaper. It can also last for many generations if look ed after; it can produce many advantages for the farmer and it can protect their land from desertification,

Practice Test Essays

Practice Test Essays Practice Test Essay Practice Test Essay You are considering the purchase of a $1,000 par value Treasury Bill and observe the following quotes for T-Bills in the market: Ignore transaction costs. Time to Maturity days) Bid Asked . The ask price off T-bill in the secondary market is A. The price at which the dealer in T-bills is willing to sell the bill. B. The price at which the dealer in T-bills is willing to buy the bill. C. Smaller than the bid price of the T-bill. D. The price at which the investor can sell the T-bill. 5. What is the purchase price of the 144-day bill that you face? What would be the effective annual rate of return on your investment if you held 6. The bill until maturity? . What would be the effective annual rate of return on your investment if you bought this bill today and were able to sell it back to a dealer after 28 days, assuming that yields do not change over time? Consider the following 2 stocks in the table and answer the next 3 questions. Note: Initial Price (O) is the current price. Final Price (1) is the share price at the end of the first period, and Final Price (2) is the share price at the end of the second period. Stock Initial Price (O) Final Price (1) Final pence (2) 35 42 first period, that is, from initial period (O) to the first period (1) c. 3% 9. Suppose stock A has 20 million shares, stock B has 1 million shares outstanding. Compute the rate of return on a market capitalization-weighted index of the two stocks for the first period. D. 19% 10. In the second period, stock B splits 2:1 (two-for-one), I. . , its price is halved (from $88 in period 1 to $44 in period 2) while shares outstanding doubled. What must happen to the divisor for the price-weighted index for the second period? A. The divisor must not change. B. The divisor must decrease to 1. 32 C. The divisor must decrease to 1. 23 D. The divisor must decrease to 0. 875 11. You purchased a share of stock for $20. One year later you received $1 as di vidend and sold the share for $29. What was your holding period return? A. 45% 12. An investor purchased 100 shares of stock at $100 per share on 60% margin. Suppose the maintenance margin is 30%, at what price does the investor get a margin call? A. $58. 35 B. $57. 05 c. $58. 14 D. $57. 14 13. Regarding the previous question, if the stock price declines to $70 per share, whats the return to the investors equity? What if the stock rises to $1 50 per share? A. And -83% B. And -75% C. -50% and 83% D. -30% and 75% 14. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT about short sale A. A short sale may only take place if the last recorded price was an optic. B. Proceeds from short sales must be kept on account with the broker.

Golf - 30 minutes practice plan for youth age 10 to 14 Case Study

Golf - 30 minutes practice plan for youth age 10 to 14 - Case Study Example Following this further, they are also concerned with the hypothetical, future along with ideological problems. Children who are between the ages 11-14 years old for boys and 10-13 years for girls have the following characteristics and skills including being rebellious in nature., the children find the sense of whom they are, development of a sense of self identity. From age 8 to14 years, the child becomes healthier, stronger and becomes more intellectual alert and derives imagination from what makes sense not what seems not make sense (Lillard, 24). At this stage, the child becomes more industrious and more aware of more than just the environment around him/her at this point he understands and differentiates sex groups male or female. At this stage the child attaches learning to an intellectual capacity, learning from people and books far from observation. At this stage of growth supervision becomes more prioritized, and rules should be set for proper moulding. This period is termed as the most crucial phase for the development of physical and psychological traits (Montessori, 32). Research has indicated that it is during childhood that most people are best at learning the physical skills. Long Term Player Development is defined by as (Lashley 23) as a systematic approach of developing and maximizing a participant’s potential and involvement in sport. The LTPD framework is aimed at defining optimal training and competition, as well as recovery throughout the athlete’s career. This enables them to attain their full potential and also increasing lifelong participation in physical activities such as golf, especially during their critical early years of their development (11-14 years old for boys and 10-13 years for girls). At this age of life, the child becomes healthier, stronger and becomes more intellectual alert and derives imagination from what makes sense not what seems not make

The NEGATIVE MESSAGE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The NEGATIVE MESSAGE - Essay Example It is essential that our facility creates a good impression so that the public feels that we are professional and efficient organization. Our product requires that our clients trust us enough to believe that we will reliably insure their possessions and lives, and not let them down. Their first impression of us must be good and the condition of our offices must reflect our professionalism. Often in the last few months, we have found it necessary to contact your company so that tasks would be done that should have been part of every day’s routine. Accidental messes and spills were not taken care of on six occasions at least, during the ordinary cleaning rounds of the crews. We then had to contact your company directly to have the required work done. We also to escalated our communications and did, on two occasions in the last three months, contact you directly. Despite your assurances that the situation would improve, we are still experiencing problems.

Dog Bite Law - The Diane Whipple Case Research Paper

Dog Bite Law - The Diane Whipple Case - Research Paper Example No one else was seen in the immediate area. The victim was Diane Whipple, a lacrosse coach, who lived in an apartment a short distance from the apartment where the dogs lived. San Francisco General Hospital pronounced Diane Whipple dead at 8:55 p.m. that night. Bane and Hera, the Presa Canario dogs that savagely killed Whipple were originally bred for fighting, guarding and herding in the Canary Islands. The breed, being almost extinct in the 1950s, was mixed with mastiffs and others and reintroduced in the US in the 90s. The dogs were obtained through a website called â€Å"Dog-o’-War.† The dogs lived inside the apartment of Robert Edward Noel, Attorney-at-law and Marjorie F. Knoller, Attorney-at-Law, his wife. The Suit: Sharon Smith, Diane Whipple’s life partner, filed a wrongful death suite against the dogs’ owners on March 12, 2001. The criminal law applicable to the case against Noel was Death caused by a mischievous animal and involuntary manslaughte r. And the criminal law applicable to Knoller was death caused by mischievous animal, involuntary manslaughter, and second-degree murder. The basis for the charges and recovery against Noel and Knoller were formed from three theories of California law. In the state of California the owner of the dog is liable for dog bit injuries unless the victim was a trespasser on the property or provoked the dog. Noel and Knoller claimed that they were not owners of the dogs but â€Å"trustees.† This indicated they intended to defend themselves against a civil suit on the grounds that they were not the owners. They were also subject to either one or both of the defendants being negligent in handling of the dogs. The final basis of recovery was common law and liability for keeping a dog that has dangerous tendencies. If Noel and Knoller had known that the dogs Bane and Hera had dangerous traits to kill and attack a person, then both could be held accountable. In any dog bite case, possible civil defendants can include owners and caretakers of the dog, the landlord and property manager where the dogs resided, the breeder, trainers and even others. The legal basis for all civil claims is negligence. In order for landlords and property managers to be held accountable, they would need to have actual knowledge that the dogs had bitten another person or exhibited dangerous tendencies. Since Whipple died the legal coarse of action is for â€Å"wrongful death.† Whoever can inherit your property if you die without a will can also sue for your wrongful death. Sharon Smith and Edythe Pamela Whipple-Kelly filed wrongful death suits against the dog’s owners and against the owner and property manager of the apartment building where the dogs lived. The value of the case is based on the value of the person’s life and their relation to the person suing. Therefore, it is very hard to establish a rule on potential damages. The Prosecutor’s Case: The belief t hat the breed Presa Canario dogs are dangerous was the basis for the prosecutions case. Noel and Knoller were fully aware that these particular dogs had bitten people and animals, but neither took precautions to protect someone like Whipple. A witness, Neil Bardack, testified that Knoller knew she could not control the dogs, as he had seen the dogs dragging her down the street in the past. There were other witnesses that testified the dogs had previously attacked them or shown extreme aggression. It was determined that Noel and Knoller

Theories of myth

Theories of myth Mythology involves sociological or even philosophical the studying of myths. Myths involve characters such as supernatural heroes or gods. Within sacred stories, the characters involved are priests and rulers. Myths have been used extensively in explanation of the world formation and establishment process of taboos, customs and institutions (Csapo, 2005). Scholars have been trying to explain myths in the past decades using theories. Claims by Euhemerism theory have demonstrated myths to be fuzzy accounts of authentic or real historical events. According to Csapo (2005), explanations show that storytellers carry out repeated elaborations upon historical measures. Such repetitions made the myth figures to gain the position of gods. For example, a wind-god development emanating from a kingly historical account, teaching his followers on wind-interpretation and use of sails. Prodicus and Herodotus made such claims in the 5th century BC. The origin of this theorys name is from the 320 BC novelist called Euhemerus. This novelist made claims of the Greek gods evolving from legends humans. Explanations of allegory theory suggest that myths started as allegories. For example, in relation to one theory myths started as natural phenomena allegories. For instance, historically representation of Apollo was fire while Poseidon represented water, among others. Another theory explains that myths started as allegories of spiritual or philosophical concepts. For example, Athena represented wise judgment, while Aphrodite represented desire. Sanskritist Max Muller in 19th century believed that myths originated from nature, but came to be literally interpreted gradually. For example, poetry described a sea to be raging and literally this was taken to interpret the sea as a raging god. Personification theory as explained by some scholars, myths originated from personification of forces and objects which are inanimate. In their regard, these scholars observed people of ancient days worshipped natural phenomena such as air, fire. With time this described the natural phenomena as gods. For example, mythopoeic thought described ancients to observe things as persons but not as mere objects. Thereby, they described events of nature to be actions of natural gods, hence myths evolution. Cosmogonic or creation myths relates to supernatural stories giving explanations to humanity, life, earth or universe existence (Csapo, 2005). Generally, myths tend to broadly share the same themes. Myths commonly involve fractioning of worldly things from primordial chaos. Such aspects include father and mother separation gods or emergence of land from an infinite and from timeless ocean Among the Finnish, people believed that the world was made from a broken egg. Descriptions reveal that a bird was flying over the sea as it searched for a place set-up her nest and lay eggs. The birds search was futile everywhere. The only thing in existence was water. After that, the bird identified the 1st dry place to some it was a boat, others it was an island, and others a floating body such as a wizard. However, the dry place was unstable to set-up a nest hence a large wave broke those eggs, their parts being spread all around. Upper part of the egg formed the sky, yolk formed the sun and lower egg parts formed the earth. The first human being was vainamoinem born to air maiden Ilmatar impregnated by the sea. Vainamoinem gave orders for trees plantation and initiated the human culture. This myth relates to the allegory theory which explains representations of natural phenomena (Csapo, 2005). Upper part of the egg in this myth represents the sky yolk represents the sun while the lower part represents the earth. The allegories here are the sun, the sky and the earth. On the other hand, among the Hindu, universe existence is governed by Trimurti of brahma. Brahma is the creator Vishnu is the sustainer while shiva is the destroyer. The first Avatar generated from water. Hindus believe universe creation originated from the word Aum. The word stands for the sacred sound uttered by every person during birth. Their belief states that creation cycle has no beginning, neither preservation nor destruction. A Brahmas day takes 4.32billion years and the night too. Their belief is that nights and days follow in cycles. To them time is represented as Kala. This Hindu myth relates to the euhemerism theory where people try to explain the existence of natural phenomena (Csapo, 2005). The Hindus have applied the historic events, explaining each occurrence with natural phenomena. As this myth continues to be told repetitively, the myth figures have developed to take the positions of gods. In this reference, the Hindus god is Brahma emanating from Hindus accounts t o historical events, explaining where the universe originated from. In conclusion, as drawn the discussion, I believe that myths have been associated with several purposes. Myths are believed to shape or establish behavior models. Figures of myth are normally sacred hence positioning them playing the role models on humans. Similarly, myths uphold current social institutions and structures. Myths serve the purpose of justifying social customs in claims that sacred beings established them. Additionally, myths act as a good source of entertainment and also providing human beings with experiences which are religious in nature. Myths unraveling repetitions detaches people from modernity to mythical era presenting them nearer to the Devine. For example, a society can reenact healings done by gods in ancient days in order to heal an individual in the present. References Csapo, E. (2005). Theories of mythology. London, UK: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.

A Comparison of London and Ozymandias :: Poems Poetry Civilization Essays

A Comparison of London and Ozymandias A theme of Mortality lives in both poems. In "London" Blake talks about the death and suffering of people, and in "Ozymandias" Shelley talks about the death of a civilisation. A sense of someone dominating, someone with greater power occurs in both poems. In "London" the rich have this upper hand against the poor, in "Ozymandias" this great leader is said to have this strength over his enemies and his own people. In "Ozymandias" Shelley writes about a fallen empire, a civilisation that must have gone down hill because now there is no sign of it. In "London" Blake tells us that the poorer people of this city are going through a bad time, their empire has fallen like Ozymandias's empire, but in this case London has not collapsed. Blake writes about how London had drifted to a time of poverty and disease. Moods ----- The two poems, both give a feeling of depression and melancholy to the reader. Shelley uses different words to create this effect, while Blake writes how everyone is sad and weak. Great arrogance is shown in both poems. In "Ozymandias" the king shows that he is arrogant, he describes himself on the pedestal, he talks about how great and powerful ruler he is. In "London" the arrogance of the church compares to this. In "London" the rich betray the poor, because they have put their name on everything. In "Ozymandias" the sculptor betrays the king when the statue is being made. Styles ------ Both poems have phonological techniques like alliteration, rhyme and onomatopoeia. They are both concisely written and although short in length are packed with layers of meaning and content. Strong modifiers are used throughout both poems, which creates tension. Good adjectives also help with imagery give a clear mental picture; for example when Ozymandias's face is described, with its sneer and frown. Differences ----------- Themes ------ In "Ozymandias" Shelley writes about an ancient civilisation. The poem is written in past tense. Blake writes about the London he is witnessing; "London" is written in the present tense. An obvious difference is that Blake writes about a civilisation, which is in existence while Shelley writes about a civilisation that has been disintegrated. The strength of authority is maintained in "London" while in "Ozymandias" it has dissipated. Moods ----- "Ozymandias" fills you with mystery about where the traveller came

Some people think that most employees like to earn money for a better life than any enjoyable job

In life, citizens are currently living in a very harsh existence that seems full of difficulties that they have to confront longer. Everybody acknowledge today’s economic situation is not as stable and safe as expected. On the other hand, humans demand more standards of living first in order to catch up with the high pace of developed nations. To achieve these ambitions, not a few of employees in the fact having been considered that they need to earn money at any career for a prosperous logistics life than any enjoyable job.Perhaps, the first mention is we should accept that money is primary reason for working though money does not bring happiness. It is often said that people need money for survive. Moreover, life will be easier for those who have plenty of money as they can do whatever they like and do not have to think constantly about whether they are able to afford something or not. In addition, earning a good salary makes it easier to be more healthy and supports them wi th wealthy. The ideal situation may be to have an enjoyable job that also provides a good salary, but this is not always possible.It is essential to remember that some people might not have a choice of jobs because they are not well educated or it chooses them, they cannot pick up one for their own. That is a reason why they mainly concentrate on spending most of their time to work hard any business that needs them for a seeking of money and dream pursuing even it is not their passion. No doubt, well-paid job enable people to live in luxury house with all modern conveniences. By this way, good salary possibly increases the quality of life.Another criticism I would like to comment is providing economic necessities is the most crucial condition of helping country to be well matched as others of five continents. In recent years, the economy status is facing some problem that leads us become jobless and country goes worse more than before. That is the disadvantage of choosing an enjoyab le job because the possibility of losing job is greatly high. Thus, perhaps I believe that  type of decision depends on the situation and scenario of the condition. Saying truthly, it will be risk if the individuals only wait for a job that they have a knowledge asset or an adoration of it.To emphasize, finding an enjoyable job can only suitable with previous situation in last few years. The best advice for employees here is they do not need to expect eagerly on the job that is matched with their education whatever it costs. To make a soon development, people should snatch an opportunity of job whenever it is available and put much effort in order to build up the national economy by having a stable financial statement with good job.To end up my point of view, I would like to go with reasons why others appreciate a work they enjoy. These people claim that money is not happiness, whereas enjoyable job not only makes their life happier, but also help them earn high income in the near future. This due to the fact that they will find something interesting in their job that might seem dull and boring to others. As a consequence, they inevitably devote themselves heart and soul to work, leading to them soon enhance the level of performance to get perfect effect.As well as this, it is highly likely that such job brings emotional satisfaction to worker and contributes to the development of company. It is reasonable to say that their boss will respect them, paying them, giving higher position. One more interesting pint here is some people insist that they could manage with less money and have a better life by taking a job they enjoy or by working fewer hours. Furthermore, a less well-paid job can enable them to spend more time at home.In conclusion, some people argue that money is not important, but I am sure that money is the solution to many problems. If employees earn more money at work, they will be able to meet family’s needs, in some aspect even they will be a kind of reputable person. What is more, by earning more money, people can enjoy life by making good living conditions and can help country go up as well.

Motivation for Colonization essays

Motivation for Colonization essays Many people suffered for the colonization of the new world settlement. Two early regions for settlement were, Chesapeake and New England. Although both are British, they differ greatly in their motivation for colonization, socio-economic status, and personal retreat for religion. Keep in mind survival for the colonists was nearly impossible. Diseases, such as malaria, plagued colonies killing thousands, as well as famine and the cold of winter. Many merchants in 1606, under the rule of King James I, believed that there was much profit to be made in the new world. They were correct. King James ordered two companies for another attempt at settlement, Virginia company and Plymouth company. These Joint Stock companies sold shares to investors to raise money for Britian's expedition to the New World. First attempts at settlement in 1607 proved much hardship for the new land owners. It wasn't until 1609 that the colonist began to prosper; they learned the cultivation of tobacco. Export of tobacco boomed the colonists market. Soon more labor in the colonies were needed to harvest such large cash crops. Indentured servants were sent from Britian to help boost the economy by harvesting these crops, as well as, their settlement in the new world. New England, on the other hand, was sought out for religious freedom from the Anglican church, or the Church of England. The Anglican church was plagued with corruption under the rule of Queen Elizabeth. Protestant reformers known as puritans and pilgrims fled Britain in hopes to "bear witness to their Puritan fate." Puritans wanted to reform the Church of England, by moving to the New World, creating new churches to serve as a model for English reform. Pilgrims on the other hand were separatists and felt that the corruption of the English Church was irreversible. ...

Iraq Government, Facts, and History

Iraq Government, Facts, and History The modern nation of Iraq is built upon foundations that go back to some of humanitys earliest complex cultures. It was in Iraq, also known as Mesopotamia, that Babylonian king Hammurabi regularized the law in the Code of Hammurabi, c. 1772 BCE. Under Hammurabis system, society would inflict upon a criminal the same harm that the criminal had inflicted upon his victim. This is codified in the famous dictum, An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. More recent Iraqi history, however, tends to support the Mahatma Gandhis take on this rule. He is supposed to have said that An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind. Capital and Major Cities Capital: Baghdad, population 9,500,000 (2008 estimate) Major cities: Mosul, 3,000,000 Basra, 2,300,000 Arbil, 1,294,000 Kirkuk, 1,200,000 Government of Iraq The Republic of Iraq is a parliamentary democracy. The head of state is the president, currently Jalal Talabani, while the head of government is Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki. The unicameral parliament is called the Council of Representatives; its 325 members serve four-year terms. Eight of those seats are specifically reserved for ethnic or religious minorities. Iraqs judiciary system consists of the Higher Judicial Council, the Federal Supreme Court, the Federal Court of Cassation, and lower courts. (Cassation literally means to quash - it is another term for appeals, evidently taken from the French legal system.) Population Iraq has a total population of about 30.4 million. The population growth rate is an estimated 2.4%. About 66% of Iraqis live in urban areas. Some 75-80% of Iraqis are Arabs. Another 15-20% are Kurds, by far the largest ethnic minority; they live primarily in northern Iraq. The remaining roughly 5% of the population is made up of Turkomen, Assyrians, Armenians, Chaldeans and other ethnic groups. Languages Both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages of Iraq. Kurdish is an Indo-European language related to Iranian languages. Minority languages in Iraq include Turkoman, which is a Turkic language; Assyrian, a Neo-Aramaic language of the Semitic language family; and Armenian, an Indo-European language with possible Greek roots. Thus, although the total number of languages spoken in Iraq is not high, the linguistic variety is great. Religion Iraq is an overwhelmingly Muslim country, with an estimated 97% of the population following Islam. Perhaps, unfortunately, it is also among the most evenly divided countries on Earth in terms of Sunni and Shia populations; 60 to 65% of Iraqis are Shia, while 32 to 37% are Sunni. Under Saddam Hussein, the Sunni minority controlled the government, often persecuting Shias. Since the new constitution was implemented in 2005, Iraq is supposed to be a democratic country, but the Shia/Sunni split is a source of much tension as the nation sorts out a new form of government. Iraq also has a small Christian community, around 3% of the population. During the nearly decade-long war following the US-led invasion in 2003, many Christians fled Iraq for Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, or western countries. Geography Iraq is a desert country, but it is watered by two major rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates. Only 12% of Iraqs land is arable. It controls a 58 km (36 miles) coast on the Persian Gulf, where the two rivers empty into the Indian Ocean. Iraq is bordered by Iran to the east, Turkey and Syria to the north, Jordan and Saudi Arabia to the west, and Kuwait to the southeast. Its highest point is Cheekah Dar, a mountain in the north of the country, at 3,611 m (11,847 feet). Its lowest point is sea level. Climate As a subtropical desert, Iraq experiences extreme seasonal variation in temperature. In parts of the country, July and August temperatures average over 48 °C (118 °F). During the rainy winter months of December through March, however, temperatures drop below freezing not infrequently. Some years, heavy mountain snow in the north produces dangerous flooding on the rivers. The lowest temperature recorded in Iraq was -14 °C (7 °F). The highest temperature was 54 °C (129 °F). Another key feature of Iraqs climate is the sharqi, a southerly wind that blows from April through early June, and again in October and November. It gusts up to 80 kilometers per hour (50 mph), causing sandstorms that can be seen from space. Economy The economy of Iraq is all about oil; black gold provides more than 90% of government revenue  and accounts for 80% of the countrys foreign exchange income. As of 2011, Iraq was producing 1.9 million barrels per day of oil, while consuming 700,000 barrels per day domestically. (Even as it exports almost 2 million barrels per day, Iraq also imports 230,000 barrels per day.) Since the start of the US-led War in Iraq in 2003, foreign aid has become a major component of Iraqs economy, as well. The US has pumped some $58 billion dollars worth of aid into the country between 2003 and 2011; other nations have pledged an additional $33 billion in reconstruction aid. Iraqs workforce is employed primarily in the service sector, although about 15 to 22% work in agriculture. The unemployment rate is around 15%, and an estimated 25% of Iraqis live below the poverty line. The Iraqi currency is the dinar. As of February 2012, $1 US is equal to 1,163 dinars. History of Iraq Part of the Fertile Crescent, Iraq was one of the early sites of complex human civilization and agricultural practice. Once called Mesopotamia, Iraq was the seat of the Sumerian and Babylonian cultures c. 4,000 - 500 BCE. During this early period, Mesopotamians invented or refined technologies such as writing and irrigation; the famous King Hammurabi (r. 1792- 1750 BCE) recorded the law in the Code of Hammurabi, and over a thousand of years later, Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605 - 562 BCE) built the incredible Hanging Gardens of Babylon. After about 500 BCE, Iraq was ruled by a succession of Persian dynasties, such as the Achaemenids, the Parthians, the Sassanids and the Seleucids. Although local governments existed in Iraq, they were under Iranian control until the 600s CE. In 633, the year after the Prophet Muhammad died, a Muslim army under Khalid ibn Walid invaded Iraq. By 651, the soldiers of Islam had brought down the Sassanid Empire in Persia  and began to Islamicize the region that is now Iraq and Iran. Between 661 and 750, Iraq was a dominion of the Umayyad Caliphate, which ruled from Damascus (now in Syria). The Abbasid Caliphate, which ruled the Middle East and North Africa from 750 to 1258, decided to build a new capital closer to the political power hub of Persia. It built the city of Baghdad, which became a center of Islamic art and learning. In 1258, catastrophe struck the Abbasids and Iraq in the form the Mongols under Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. The Mongols demanded that Baghdad surrender, but the Caliph Al-Mustasim refused. Hulagus troops laid siege to Baghdad, taking the city with at least 200,000 Iraqi dead. The Mongols also burned the Grand Library of Baghdad and its wonderful collection of documents - one of the great crimes of history. The caliph himself was executed by being rolled in a carpet and trampled by horses; this was an honorable death in Mongol culture  because none of the caliphs noble blood touched the ground. Hulagus army would meet defeat by the Egyptian Mamluk slave-army in the Battle of Ayn Jalut. In the Mongols wake, however, the Black Death carried away about a third of Iraqs population. In 1401, Timur the Lame (Tamerlane) captured Baghdad  and ordered another massacre of its people. Timurs fierce army only controlled Iraq for a few years  and was supplanted by the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Empire would rule Iraq from the fifteenth century through 1917  when Britain wrested the Middle East from Turkish control and the Ottoman Empire collapsed. Iraq Under Britain Under the British/French plan to divide the Middle East, the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement, Iraq became part of the British Mandate. On November 11, 1920, the region became a British mandate under the League of Nations, called the State of Iraq. Britain brought in a (Sunni) Hashemite king from the region of Mecca and Medina, now in Saudi Arabia, to rule over the primarily Shia Iraqis and Kurds of Iraq, sparking widespread discontent and rebellion. In 1932, Iraq gained nominal independence from Britain, although the British-appointed King Faisal still ruled the country and the British military had special rights in Iraq. The Hashemites ruled until 1958  when King Faisal II was assassinated in a coup led by Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim. This signaled the beginning of a rule by a series of strongmen over Iraq, which lasted through 2003. Qasims rule survived for just five years, before being overthrown in turn by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif in February of 1963. Three years later, Arifs brother took power after the colonel died; however, he would rule Iraq for just two years before being deposed by a Baath Party-led coup in 1968. The Baathist government was led by Ahmed Hasan Al-Bakir at first, but he was slowly elbowed aside over the next decade by Saddam Hussein. Saddam Hussein formally seized power as president of Iraq in 1979. The following year, feeling threatened by rhetoric from the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the new leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Saddam Hussein launched an invasion of Iran that led to the eight-year-long Iran-Iraq War. Hussein himself was a secularist, but the Baath Party was dominated by Sunnis. Khomeini hoped that Iraqs Shiite majority would rise up against Hussein in an Iranian Revolution-style movement, but that did not happen. With support from the Gulf Arab states and the United States, Saddam Hussein was able to fight the Iranians to a stalemate. He also took the opportunity to use chemical weapons against tens of thousands of Kurdish and Marsh Arab civilians within his own country, as well as against the Iranian troops, in blatant violation of international treaty norms and standards. Its economy ravaged by the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq decided to invade the small but wealthy neighboring nation of Kuwait in 1990. Saddam Hussein announced that he had annexed Kuwait; when he refused to withdraw, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to take military action in 1991 in order to oust the Iraqis. An international coalition led by the United States (which had been allied with Iraq just three years earlier) routed the Iraqi Army in a matter of months, but Saddam Husseins troops set fire to Kuwaiti oil wells on their way out, causing an ecological disaster along the Persian Gulf coast. This fighting would come to be known as the First Gulf War. Following the First Gulf War, the United States patrolled a no-fly zone over the Kurdish north of Iraq to protect civilians there from Saddam Husseins government; Iraqi Kurdistan began to function as a separate country, even while nominally still part of Iraq. Throughout the 1990s, the international community was concerned that Saddam Husseins government was trying to develop nuclear weapons. In 1993, the US also learned that Hussein had made a plan to assassinate President George H. W. Bush during the First Gulf War. The Iraqis allowed UN weapons inspectors into the country, but expelled them in 1998, claiming that they were CIA spies. In October of that year, US President Bill Clinton called for regime change in Iraq. After George W. Bush became president of the United States in 2000, his administration began to prepare for a war against Iraq. Bush the younger resented Saddam Husseins plans to kill Bush the elder and made the case that Iraq was developing nuclear weapons despite the rather flimsy evidence. The September 11, 2001 attacks on New York and Washington DC gave Bush the political cover he needed to launch a Second Gulf War, even though Saddam Husseins government had nothing to do with al-Qaeda or the 9/11 attacks. Iraq War The Iraq War began on March 20, 2003, when a US-led coalition invaded Iraq from Kuwait. The coalition drove the Baathist regime out of power, installing an Iraqi Interim Government in June of 2004, and organizing free elections for October of 2005. Saddam Hussein went into hiding  but was captured by US troops on December 13, 2003. In the chaos, sectarian violence broke out across the country between the Shia majority and the Sunni minority; al-Qaeda seized the opportunity to establish a presence in Iraq. Iraqs interim government tried Saddam Hussein for the killing of Iraqi Shiites in 1982  and sentenced him to death. Saddam Hussein was hanged on December 30, 2006. After a surge of troops to quell violence in 2007-2008, the US withdrew from Baghdad in June of 2009  and left Iraq completely in December of 2011.

Commonwealth of Independent States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Commonwealth of Independent States - Essay Example The initial goals of CIS creation were as follows. First, it was made to initiate a close economic cooperation between members through establishing a so-called 'common economic space'. Second, coordination of policies between allied states with mutual respect for interests was proposed. The third main objective of CIS was to create a unified military-strategic space under a joint command. Thus, the CIS was devised as a regional union, based on the concept of a state, complete with a centralized economy and cross-border ties at the macro and micro levels. Newly acquired independence meant little for post-soviet countries, as their economies were interdependent. In particular, membership in CIS meant the delay of energy crisis for every former Soviet republic. Despite the potential benefits CIS members could gain every of them understood the price they had to pay for using Russia's abundant energy resources. "The Soviet experience constantly reminds the new elites of the CIS that Russia could effectively usurp their independence in any supranational body in which it is the only major power center." (Aslund et al 1999, p.19). Indeed, it was never a secret that Russia uses CIS to influence the policies of regions, which were subjects of domestic policy just a few years ago. To put it simply, every CIS member except Russia faced a dichotomy: on the one hand they had to secure their newly proclaimed sovereignty, on the other - they were unable to survive without external economic help. Although allies behaved differently from each other in this complex situation, they can be divided into three general groups. The first group, which may be called extremely pro-Western, refused from as much cooperation with Russia as possible. Three Baltic regions, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania refused to enter CIS and decided to seek help from other neighbours. Politically, Lithuania is headed towards Poland, and Estonia along with Latvia favour toward Finland and Scandinavian region. The main reason for turning back on Russia was the fact that since their forced incorporation into the Soviet Union they've never acknowledged the legality of that claim. Still, even politically independent, Baltic States remain under Russian economic influence, as it remains their main trading partner. The second group, the most numerous one, tries to balance between Western help and alliance with Russia. Since Russia perceives CIS as a tool to hinder if not stall the movement of NATO towards East, these members of CIS try to gain as much use as possible from this confrontation. For instance, in spite of membership in the Council of Europe and some if not frequent calls for economic help from United States (e.g. during electoral campaign of Viktor Yuschenko), Ukraine has clearly stated its attitude to Russia as "the most important strategic partner", according to words of Leonid Kuchma. Other countries that can be referred to this group are Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and

Entrepreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words - 2

Entrepreneurship - Essay Example The main motive of an entrepreneur is to earn profit through production or distribution of product and/or services. On the other hand, entrepreneurship has been explained as a process of performing a work in a new and better way. As per the views of Peter F. Drucker, an entrepreneur is one who always searches for change, responds to it and exploits it as an opportunity (Drucker, 2007). In a broader way, it can be said that entrepreneur shifts economic sources out of lower into higher productivity and greater yield. Every management theorist has represented entrepreneurship in its own way. The entire management study has been based on entrepreneurship. Like any other management studies, entrepreneurship has diverse characteristics, themes and types (Magretta, 2014). With this concern, the essay intends to conduct a debate between characteristics and themes of entrepreneurship. Moreover, the entire essay provides a brief view about entrepreneurship types, characteristics and themes. Every profession has different characteristics or traits, which make that occupation more diverse and exclusive from others. Likewise, an entrepreneur has many unique traits, which make this occupation different from other (Magretta, 2014). An entrepreneur has various characteristics that are described hereunder. To make a mark in any field, every individual is needed to be confident. In an entrepreneur, confidence is recognized as a hallmark characteristic. It has been seen that individuals are able to be success in their profession by developing the level of confidence. In this regard, an entrepreneur is required to possess confidence, so that he or she is creative as well as risk taking in approach for better business performance (Otote, 2009). To be a successful entrepreneur, every individual should have strong leadership qualities for